Researching the Background Literature for Any Project

Background research refers to the process that a writer uses to gain knowledge about a topic she does not know about, or much about. In our digital world, all writers, whether they are students or professionals, have or can gain access to previously published and unpublished information about just about anything. The role of the science writer is to sort through the noise and summarize information for people who dont have that luxury, but practicing that technique can be helpful to anyone planning a future in a scientific discipline. Background research is the first step of all good scientific studies, including archaeological investigations, used as an example here. There are three main sources of information available to people who are writing research papers today: internet sources, brick and mortar libraries and museums, and people. Wikipedia, Science Blogs and News Reports These days, Wikipedia is a reasonable starting place for general background information, but there are other starting points that you may find more useful and reliable, such as science blogs and news reports. Be cautious and find out enough information about the news outlet or blog writer so that you can be confident of that reliability—is the blog writers biography available and is that person qualified; do they cite scholarly references in their articles; is the tone of their blog sensible and balanced. And wherever you start, dont stop there. The problem with those types of resources, is they are not peer-reviewed. The peer-review process requires that before a scientific paper is published, it is reviewed by one or more experts for its validity. The process has its faults: but science changes very slowly, and what a researcher believes in her heart today may be disproven tomorrow. What scientists get published in peer-reviewed articles are far more conservative, by and large, than what they say to a news reporter, in their classes, or in their own blogs. To create a balanced research report of your own, you need both types of information: What do the partisans believe about the findings right now, and what do other sources say about it. Finding Peer-Reviewed Literature How do you gain access to peer-reviewed literature? A lot of academic papers are locked up by the publishers with exorbitant prices for downloading a single article—US$25-40 is common. If you are a college student, you should have access to the electronic resources in the university library, which will include free access to that catalog. If you are a high school student or independent scholar, you may still be able to have use of the library; go talk to the library administration and ask them what is available for you. Once youve logged on to the university library, where do you try out your topic keywords? Of course, you can try the university catalog: but sometimes a less-structured approach works better. While Google Scholar is excellent, it returns results from a wide variety of disciplines. So, for example, if you are researching the term seasonality in Google Scholar, you find information about the stock market and tourism and atmospheric circulations. You can add additional keywords to narrow down your search such as domestication or archaeology, but you can also turn to specialized article databases in your subject area. On the Internet: Specialized Article Databases Specialized article databases are typically assembled by people who are experts in those fields and part of discipline-based societies. For archaeologists, some good anthropology-based databases include Anthropology Plus, AnthroSource, and the Annual Review of Anthropology, which has assembled bibliographic essays on discipline-specific topics. Other fields have the same sorts of databases, just search for article databases and add a keyword for your field of endeavor. The Annual Reviews collection has a treasure-trove of peer-reviewed syntheses of topics in all scientific disciplines, from Analytical Chemistry to Vision Science. There are many others that you may have access to at the university library, or available via your laptop for a yearly or monthly subscription. JSTOR is a subscription-based repository for hundreds of back-catalog journals; Lexis-Nexis has been a tool for news reporters seeking information on individuals for over 30 years; and there are many publisher-specific sources such as Elseviers Science Direct, Wileys Science Solutions, and Taylor Francis Online. Brick and Mortar: Society Museums and Libraries Another great source for information for background research is topic-specific libraries and museums. Chances are the local university has a Chemistry or Geography library; you may also find public science venues, such as local historical or genealogical societies. These libraries have selected the most important research books and journals in that field, and you might also find books and memoirs of local residents involved in the studies that dont make it into the top searches of Google. Best of all, you may well find a librarian with a voluminous memory. Sadly, many of the public societies are shutting their facilities because of budget cuts—so if you still have one, be sure to visit this fast-disappearing resource. State Offices Many states and provinces have governmental offices where information concerning local aspects of scientific research are stored. State level offices include Natural Resources, History, Archaeology, and Environmental offices. All of these include information that is available to professionals for assistance with their research and might be available to you even if you are not a professional. For example, if you are a working archaeologist in a particular state, you can almost certainly obtain access to the records, articles, reports, artifact collections, and maps kept at the State Archaeologist office; but these are not always open to the general public. It wont hurt to ask, and many of the records will be open to students. The University of Iowa maintains a list of National Association of State Archaeologist Offices. People: Oral History Interviews One often overlooked area of background research is the oral history interview. Find people who know about your topic and go talk to them. By all means, do your background research on the subject before you reach out to your potential contacts. Dont expect them to simply tell you all you need to know about a particular subject: come with some knowledge about the subject and be ready with some pertinent questions. To find people, use your local university again, and see if there is someone in the anthropology (or other) department who knows about or has studied your topic. Reach out to the librarian at the topic library and see if they know of a friendly resource you might chat with. For an archaeological research paper, amateur archaeologists and historians may be excellent sources of information, as might retired archaeologists who have conducted work on a site. Members of the general public who live in the area and long-time museum directors may recall when investigations took place. If you dont have access to the university, use Google Scholar to identify recent research, and then using email, approach the authors for insight.   Who knows? An interview might be the capstone making your research paper the best it can be.

Taking a Look at Capital Punishment - 606 Words

Would you rather want the murderer of your loved one to have a capital punishment or do you want them to spend their entire life in a prison cell? That question raises a lot of controversy to the public because of the capital punishment. To prevent criminals from killing they are given a capital punishment who has committed horrendous crimes to satisfy oneself, but many people think that criminals shouldnt be given death penalty because it decreases the value of life. In the article â€Å"Death and Justice† Published in New Public in 1985 by Edward I. Koch, who has been a member of congress and later elected as mayor in New York City, he explains how the capital punishment is right and how it can bring justice to the people. He wrote this article to the readers and opposition voters of the new public, who was against capital punishment. He used the opposition argument and convinced his audience by using Ethos, Logos and Pathos to support his argument. Koch supports his argument by using his experience as credibility, to convey his reader and gaining his readers trust. He stated in his Article Death and Justice â€Å"During my twenty two years in public service, I have heard the pros and cons of capital punishment expressed with special intensity†¦ I support the death penalty for heinous crimes of murder†¦.i have sometimes been subject to emotional outrage attacks by the voters †¦. I still support the death penalty† (P.320). Koch explains that he is someone you can trust and he isShow MoreRelatedTaking a Look at Capital Punishment1003 Words   |  4 PagesCapital punishment is a topic highly debated upon. For years the court systems have been debating whether the criminals deserve this strict punishment or not. However, despite the verdict from the judge, people have still been divided on whether capital punishment does more harm than good. A major subject that comes up is if the government has a justifiable reason for killing convicted people. Some only look at the negative but there are plenty of reasons why this is a positive action. Capital punishmentRead MoreTaking a Look at Capital Punishment677 Words   |  3 Pagesdeath penalty for alleged criminals in the United States needs to change because there is an unacceptable number of posthumous exonerations, and a negative generational impact on the family of the accused. The death penalty is a common method of capital punishment in the United States, used mainly for serious crimes such as murder. Currently, there are five different authorized methods of execution in this country: hanging, electrocution, lethal gas, firing squad, and lethal injection. Of these five,Read MoreTaking a Look at Capital Punishment1004 Words   |  4 PagesFurman had four main arguments: most western nations had abolished capital punishment because it was an unsuccessful way to deter crime; juries only handed out about 100 death penalties each year, and only about 50 prisoners were sentenced to death so capital punishment was not being issued objectively; national prison records stated that executions almost always involved black prisoners; and the only reason why capital punishment had not been abolished in the United States is because legislaturesRead MoreTaking a Look at Capital Punishment1080 Words   |  4 Pages Since 1608, legal systems have used capital punishment as justice. â€Å"As of November 2014, 32 states have the death penalty. There have been a total of 1348 executions from January 1977 to the end of 2014† (capitalpunishmentuk). The capital punishment only affects those who sentenced in the crime of rape or murder. The most popular death method is lethal injection. There are other options such as â€Å"electrocution, hanging, shooting, and the gas chamber† (capitalpunishmentuk) but theses alternativeRead MoreTaking a Look at Capital Punishment2178 Words   |  9 PagesCapital punishment also known as the death penalty is a sentence which requires the use of deadly force on high risk inmates. This form of punishment has become a controversial topic for many debates. 58 nations are currently using capital punishment in their justice systems, 97 countries have decided to abolish it completely. Canada decided to abolish capital punishment from the Canadian Criminal Cod e in 1976, and many argue whether the abolishment had any positive outcome on Canada’s justice systemRead MoreTaking a Look at Capital Punishment764 Words   |  3 PagesDeath penalty is also known as capital punishment. Capital Punishment is a penalty of execution, administered to someone legally convicted of a capital crime. The death penalty was established in America in 1608. The British influenced America to use the death sentence. The first recorded practice of the death penalty in America was to Caption George Kendall in Virginia, he was found guilty of being a spy for Spain. However, the death penalty came long before Captain George Kendall. The first establishedRead MoreCessation of Life: Who are we to choose?- A look into the Death Penalty686 Words   |  3 Pages The topic of capital punishment is a hot one. Human beings are capable of doing some monstrous things. For a victim of a heinous crime, sometimes the only justice seems to be an eye for an eye. And most of the time those victims look to our court systems to provide that justice. But is death the answer? I believe that with human fallibility and the fallibility of our court system as variables, that a sentence that cannot be overturned should not be passed down in any case, especially when thatRead MoreA Hanging By George Orwell1141 Words   |  5 Pagesconvey his argument against capital punishment. Orwell as an officer of the law is sworn to enforce the laws of the state, even if he disagrees with them morally. Orwell wrote â€Å"A Hanging† using an event he acted in to describe his point on why capital punishment is a crime against nature. Although as a police man he could not oppose the law, his story â€Å"A Hanging†, Orwell shows his opposition through many s ymbolic forms. Like Orwell I too am against capital punishment, by writing â€Å"A Hanging† GeorgeRead More Capital Punishment Essay - Justice in Retribution1470 Words   |  6 PagesCapital Punishment: Justice in Retribution       The American government operates in the fashion of an indirect democracy. Citizens live under a social contract whereby individuals agree to forfeit certain rights for the good of the whole. Punishments for crimes against the state are carried out via due process, guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment. The use of capital punishment is decided by the state, which is legal in thirty-seven states. It is a moral imperative to protect the states rightsRead MoreThe Death Penalty Is The Punishment Of Execution1247 Words   |  5 PagesWhat is the death penalty? The death penalty is the punishment of execution, administered to someone legally convicted of a capital crime. In the reading selection â€Å"The DEATH PENALTY in AMERICA† Bedau says that â€Å"The history of the death penalty in America can be useful if roughly divided into six epochs of very uneven duration and importance (3)†.The author is saying that the history of the death penalty can be usefully if it is separate into different time period. The author says â€Å"first, from the

The Impact of the Iran Hostage Crisis free essay sample

Before one examines the impact of the Iran hostage, it is prudent that one understands the genesis of the conflict. Iran had always viewed America has an ally; as Britain and German had colonized countries. America thus seemed neutral in the eyes of Iranians. The conflict between Iran and America arose from oil. During that epoch, America and Britain control a large reserve of Irans oil. In 1951, the newly elected prime minister in Iran; Mohammed Mossadegh, had only one message; nationalize oil. This proposition was not favorable to America and Britain as nationalization was a communist agenda; at the of the cold war this was not acceptable. The American Cia conspired with the British Intelligence to oust Mohammed through a coup. After the successful coup, they replaced him with Shah; a descendant of the royal family. Shah managed to return the status quo. The successful coup marked an important precedent in America; they tried the same tactic in Cuba that failed in 1961 (Watson, 2006). Iranians were not pleased with Shahs style of leadership. They did not appreciate Americas involvement in their affairs. Shah was corrupt and ruthless. During his reign he established a police force, SAVAK that tortured and killed any dissenting voice. The Iranian government further spent billions of dollars in the purchase of American made weapons. The leadership was presumed to be in cohorts with America to the detriment of Iranians. In the eve of 1977, with full knowledge of the atrocities committed by Shah, President Carter referred to Shah as the island of stability in the Middle East (Watson, 2006). Iranians had enough and a revolution ensued. In 1979, Ayatollah Khomeini’s arrival in Iran, after two years in exile signified the downfall of Shah. In a meeting, in America President Carter choices were difficult. His advisors informed him that he could either; support Shahs regime and oppress the revolution or contact a revolutionist and ensure a smooth transition of government. He chose none of the options. Shah was ousted and escaped to Egypt in exile. He became ill and requested permission from President Carter to seek treatment in America. The President was relentless but after consultation with vice president Walter Mondale, he allowed Shah to get into America (Watson, 2006). This aspect was the genesis of the Iran hostage situation and the beginning of hostilities between America and Iran. The Impact of the Iran Hostage Saga The hostages were held in captivity in Iran for over 440 days and were released on the date Ronald Reagan was being sworn in as the president. The situation took a political angle when the revolutionary government of Iran supported the students. Ayatollah Khomeini seized the opportunity to build his support base by supporting the students. To America the message portrayed was that the whole Iranian nation plus its government hated the American people. Before the crisis, the relation between the two countries was cordial. America had invested in Iran, and had thousands of Americans residing in Iran. The crisis ended this cordial relationship. Irans attempt to lessen the hostility is seen in its act to releasing the hostages on the date the President Reagan was being sworn in (Watson, 2006). The significance of this act was to inform America plus the government that they only had an issue with Carter leadership. The release of the hostages was a conciliatory message aimed at cementing peaceful relations between the two countries. The new American regime plus the American public saw it differently; they believed that the matter was already long overdue, and Iran was facing economic hardship because of the sanctions. Release of the hostages was the plausible option for Iran (Kenneth, 2004). The relationship between the two drifted even greater. Both countries viewed each other as an enemy. America knew that, with its superior military and economic power, they would retaliate with force and that Iran was afraid of that. On the other hand, Iran knew that, without hostages, they had no power over America (Kenneth, 2004). What followed after the release of the hostages, were bloody confrontations between the two. Iran’s Attack on America During the hostage crisis, the Iranians had studied America. They observed the obsession the American had with their media, and the power the media had in changing the countrys policy. During the Vietnam War, the power of the media was revealed yet again. Iran, through their Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corp, trained Hezbollah militia to attack Americans. The militia launched their attack on an American base in Beirut killing more than 200 American personnel. President Reagan ordered a withdrawal of troops from Lebanon immediately. Later on Iran, through Hezbollah again managed to kidnap more Americans. Among the kidnapped was a CIA officer, William Francis Buckley (Watson, 2006). He was tortured in captivity and later died. Iran used the hostages to broker a deal between it and America. For the exchange of hostages; America was to sell weapons to Iran. The transaction was done through Israel. America strengthened Iran by attacking Iraq twice. Iraq under Sadam Hussein was Irans worst enemy. During that period, Sadam boasted one of the largest armies in the world. The ousting, trial and execution of Sadam left a power vacuum in the Middle East; Iran gladly filled the slot. It managed to use the position to strengthen its influence in the Middle East as the super power. In 2003, they were accused of enriching Uranium m for purposes of building a nuclear weapon. This showcases the growth of Iran to a super power in Middle East. During the second Iraq war, America faced a rise in insurgence. After investigation, they established that Iran was training and arming the insurgents. America’s Attack on Iran America began attacking Iran during the hostage crisis period. They imposed sanctions on Iran and froze the countries assets. During Clinton’s administration, they imposed a trade Embargo on Iran. All American companies were banned from trading with Iran. In the case of United States vs. Banki an American Citizen was convicted for violating this law. In 1980 during the war between Iran and Iraq, America first chose to remain neutral. Henry Kissinger opined that it was a shame that both parties could not lose (Watson, 2006). America became involve in war through the support they gave to Iraq. The strengthen sanctions against Iran while gave support to Iraq. In 1988, America launched an attack on Iran. The attack was one of the largest naval attacks ever deployed by America since the Second World War. During the same year, a U. S naval ship gunned down an Iranian airbus that was carrying Iranian passengers; killing all of them. In 1998 during Clintons administration, they put a trade embargo on Iran (Watson, 2006). Since 2003, when America revealed that Iran was enriching Uranium for purposes of creating a nuclear bomb; the United States of America has been spying on Iran through drones. America has imposed more sanctions on Iranians financial institutions. They have carried out covert operations against Iranians a number of times (Nick, 2009). It is clear that, the once cordial relationship between America and Iran has evolved into a hostile relationship between the two. Many have been killed as a result of their actions. It does not seem that there is ever going to be a solution on this matter. Towards Reconciliation Ever since Shah was ousted from power, the American and Iranian regimes have never seen eye to eye. Once Ronald Reagan ascended into power, he did not seek reconciliation. The trend has been carried on by George Bush senior to George Bush Junior. When Clinton was in power, he assented into law the Iran sanctions act. George Bush referred to the nation of Iran as the axis of evil. Khatamis government was the closest thing to arriving at a consensus between the two, but the Bush administration passes the opportunity. There seems to be hope since Obama assumed office. It is clear that President Obama is opening talks. His strategy for Iran is referred to as engagement policy. He opines that instead of viewing Iran as a problem; it is best you engage him in finding a solution. Obama is under considerable pressure from the public. Americans still prefer sanctions over dialogue as it has proven it works with Iran (Meir, 2012). On the other hand Ahmadinejad, although under criticism from part of his nationals, a majority of Iranians still do not trust America. Ahmadinejad is cautious with the Obama proposal. He sees the move as a public relations move by America to absolve them of any fault. This is to the extent that if Iran does not agree to Obamas terms, then, America is justified in issuing stricter sanctions (Nick, 2009) The hostility between America and Iran can best be tackled through dialogue. Sanctions will only hurt the common man in Iran. Dealing with Iran can be a problem especially and vice versa. As much as this is the case, Brazil and Turkey are two countries that understand Iran. In fact, it was Turkey that sought to broker a deal between Khatamis regime and Bushs regime (Hoomad, 2012). The countries should be utilized in ending the hostilities. It is time America and Iran refuse to be prisoners of the past.

Relationship between indirect and physical aggression on television and in real life

This research paper is holistic and covers the researched topic in great detail. The authors conducted an extensive literature review as evidenced by the references. The research methodology used was appropriate. The results are conclusive and suitable inferences can be drawn from them.Advertising We will write a custom article sample on Relationship between indirect and physical aggression on television and in real life specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The research was conducted by Tiffany Slotsve, Alex del Carman, (lectures at Texas University), Mary Sarver Rita Watkins (lectures at Sam Houston state university).The principle aim of conducting this research was to scrutinize people’s self reported exposure and perception to television violence and their perceived behavior. The title of the article reflects the subject matter. The author stipulates that it is a retrospective study. This is a type of longitudinal analysis t hat looks backwards asking subjects to recall events that happened earlier in their lives. The authors effectively researches on this subject. An alternative title would be; television violence, its harmful effect on children. The writer of the article tries to explain the effect of television violence on children. The writers relate the relationship between television violence and behaviors. The literature is thorough and offers an extensive background effect of television violence on children. The writers demonstrate that viewing aggressive videos, films, rock music and even internet affect the behavior of children. This research will help recognize how common and harmful television violence can be among adolescents. The research also enlightens the reader on how television violence influences some individuals to act in a certain way. A sample size of 130 students was used. This was considered 95% accurate in providing a relationship between exposure to television and perceived be havior. This sample was sufficient enough to ensure a 0∙005 level of confidence.Advertising Looking for article on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In this study, non-probability method was used. This was due to constriction on time and resources. Power sampling was used to determine the sample size required. A survey was carried out to measure students’ perception on television aggression and their perceived behavior. The students were asked to answer questions relating to their past when they were young (ages 5 to 15 years), question relating to the present time and on demographical information. The survey instrument consisted of 39 questions within three sections -nominal, ordinal and interval data. Ethical considerations are not mentioned. The researchers do not state whether they sort consent from either the head of the school, the parents or even the students. The researchers conclude that there i s a relationship between viewing aggression on television and perceived behavior .Behavior is defined as either positive (not meant to be harmful to others such as extreme sports) or negative aggression (behavior that harms others such as hurting animals and crime). This suggest that a person exposed to aggressive television as a child is likely to participate in extreme sports(positive aggression).The researchers also concluded that a person who watches television violence is also likely to get into trouble at school (negative aggression) The researchers conclusion were justified .This is due to the extensive research that they carried out. These research findings can be trusted because they were carried out by a team of experts. Adequate sampling was done and the data collected was effectively analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used as an effective means of summarizing the degree to which values of two variab les relate to each other. Reference Slotsve,T.; Carmen, A.; Sarver, M.(2008). Television violence and aggression: a Retrospective study. Southwest Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 5(1). pp. 22-49.Advertising We will write a custom article sample on Relationship between indirect and physical aggression on television and in real life specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This article on Relationship between indirect and physical aggression on television and in real life was written and submitted by user Tessa Mercer to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.